13. Woodturning design

Basic principles and rules - traditional and contemporary - Laminated work - Designs for table lamps, chandeliers, wall lamps, bowls, laminated bowls, egg cups, cake stands, lamp standards, etc.

Design in woodturning, as in any other art, falls into two categories, contemporary and traditional. The former, as applied to turning, is very simple indeed, consisting chiefly of straight taper turning, and it is to be seen in this form in many articles of furniture today. Very little experience is required to turn out such articles, although some forms are more pleasing than others. On the other hand, traditional design gives more chance for the amateur craftsman to express himself and consequently, will give more satisfaction. It is well to study and admire some of the styles and forms in antique furniture design when making your own designs for table legs, lamps and candlesticks. For example, take a look at work by Sheraton, circa 1805 or English Jacobean, circa 1650, and you will see some fine woodturning, the basic design being used in furniture today.

Many of the American Colonial craftsmen used these classic forms to produce their own design. After the Industrial Revolution, many of the early craftsmen went into decline but it is true to say that we still rely on these old craftsmen for the best forms in woodturning. If we look farther back in history to Greece or the ancient Roman Empire, we shall again see classic forms in stone which can be easily translated into wood. The amateur would do well to study these old works of art.

If we analyse any turnings, we find that they are made up of very few basic forms. There is the convex curve, known as a 'bead', 'ovolo' or 'toros', and the concave curve, which in the shallow form is called *cavetto\ or a *scotia' for the deeper form. If we wish to change design abruptly from a convex curve to a concave, it is the usual practice to turn a small step or 'fillet'. A combination, consisting of a convex and concave curve, without a 'fillet' between is commonly called an 'Ogee'.

All traditional designs are made up of a combination of these basic forms, although some of them with the curves elongated, distorted or flattened. The craftsman would do well to study these designs before embarking on his own originality. In all designs, crispness in outline is most important; do not slur or run different parts together. A small fillet, slightly slanted, will give the design a certain amount of sharpness. On the other hand, do not have too many different shapes in your design, otherwise it will appear too ornate. A standard lamp, for example, looks much better if the upper portion is reasonably plain, with the ornate turning near the base.

When designing table and standard lamps, make them appear, quite definitely, to be standing on their own bases. Do not make them look top heavy. Before embarking on any project, study the grain of the wood which you propose to use. Timbers with beautiful strong grain markings, such as walnut, can be absolutely spoilt by too many different elements of design. In such cases try to bring about a shape which will enhance the natural beauty of the wood. Contem­porary designs are well suited for strong grained timbers, the plainness in design being made more attractive by the grain in the wood. When making tapered contemporary table legs, do not make the taper absolutely straight, allow a certain amount of fullness at the midsection.

Figure 22. Elements of traditional design.

Some craftsmen will find it very difficult to obtain large quantities of exotic timbers, but where supplies are limited, laminated or built-up turnings can be made, which helps a little to go a long way. Furthermore, it is a very good way of using up off-cuts from other work. It is a very good idea to offer to buy off-cuts from your local timber yard as they come in very useful and can be bought quite cheaply. There are three general classes of built-up work:

1. Laminated, which consists of several layers of wood arranged sandwich fashion and glued together.
2. Segments, where the pieces of wood are all cut at an angle and arranged radially to form a solid block of wood.
3. Post blocked, where you start with a square centre core of wood and glue other pieces to the sides until the required size is built up.

Work of this type requires well-seasoned wood and perfect glue joints. The wood should be selected for its colour and hardness, alternating contrasting timbers. For example, walnut and sycamore look very well together. The woods used should have the same hardness and texture. Avoid using softwoods and hardwoods together.

With all laminated work the choice of glue is most important. The old hot scotch glue is not to be recom­mended as it tends to be too brittle, particularly when actually turning. The most satisfactory glues appear to be the synthetic resin types, with or without separate hardeners. These glues do not rely on the air for their drying; this is brought about by chemical action. Contact adhesives have been suggested, but again, these have their bad points. Firstly, the two pieces to be joined must be correctly positioned when they are brought together, as there is no moving them when they have made contact. Secondly, this type of glue never sets rock hard, consequently after turning and sanding a bowl, for example, you will still be able to feel the joints in the wood. This is due to the rate of expansion and contraction of the different timbers being unequal, and the semi-plastic nature of the glue allowing movement.

Laminated work is the simplest of the built-up form. All it calls for is that the various pieces be perfectly flat for perfect adhesion. It is the usual practice in sandwich con­struction, to place the grain of each layer at right angles to the piece below it. This will give the article strength and prevent warping, particularly as this type of work is very suitable for turning bowls. Turning effort can be saved on a large bowl, if various rings are roughly bandsawn to shape before gluing up.

This form of lamination work can be varied by gluing lengths of timber side by side using contrasting woods. The lengths of wood should be planed on all sides to a uniform width, before sticking together. When the glue is set, the block of wood thus formed is bandsawn into discs. Some very attractive bowls can be made in this way as shown in plate 4.

If your supply of contrasting woods is limited, the following method will make a little go a long way. Take a 2 or 3 in. block of wood, about 9 in. square, preferably in sycamore or maple. With a compass draw a 9 in. diameter circle on the face side of the wood; keeping the compass set at the radius of the circle, mark off six points on the circumference—the radius of any circle will divide the circumference into equal parts. Connect up all the points and cut along the lines with tenon saw or bandsaw. You will now have a perfect six-sided block of wood. It is essential that care is taken in the sawing, so that all six sides are perfectly flat and square with the face side of the block of wood. If you have a sanding disc fitted to your lathe, the sides of the block can be finished much more accurately. The next stage is to take a piece of contrasting wood, preferably walnut or rosewood about 1 in. thick and the same width as the block of sycamore is thick. Plane and sand perfectly flat on one side only, and cut up into six separate pieces, each piece being the same length as the flats on the block of wood. Using a good glue, stick these pieces of walnut, planed side, on the six sides of the block. When the glue is well set, bandsaw to a circle, using the previously marked centre of the block to describe the circle. Then turn in the usual way using very sharp tools. The sharpness of the tools is important if the joints in the block of wood are to remain unseen. This same method can be used for any number of sides you wish to mark out on the basic block of wood, but too many will look over ornate. All laminated work can be very attractive providing it is not over decorative.

Segmented work is a little more difficult to set up as it requires great accuracy in cutting out and can be simplified if you have a circular saw fitted with a meter attachment, but all amateurs may not have this luxury. This type of work, is also, most suitable for bowl turning. The first step is to decide how many segments you are going to have, and perhaps for your first effort, I would suggest no more than twelve. Now a full circle is 360 degrees, so if you are going to divide this up into twelve equal portions, then each segment will have an angle of 30 degrees, measured at the centre of the circle. By the same reasoning, if we are to have eighteen segments, then these will have to be cut at 20 degrees. Cut the segments out of 1 in. thick contrasting timbers, glue and arrange to form a circle. It may be necessary to tie some string lightly around the outside to keep the pieces in position, or alternatively, make a wooden jig, to do the same thing. It is a good idea to make this first disc up on an old piece of newspaper to prevent your block of wood and the workbench becoming all one piece! When the glue is set, sand flat on both sides. A further set of seg­ments can be glued on top of the first, but staggering the position of the joints and contrasting timbers. Repeat the process until the desired depth of block has been obtained.

Figure 23. Cutting angles for laminated twelve sided bowl.

This method forms a solid block and a lot of wood can be saved if the second and subsequent layers are in the form of segmented rings. Measure the width of the segments on the first layer and cut twelve separate portions, the ends of which are mitred at 75 degrees as shown in figure 23. The angles at which segments must be cut for other numbers of sides are as follows:

With practice many variations of this type of work can be accomplished. Although very fascinating, this branch of turning is not a very popular commercial proposition, owing to the amount of time spent in setting up, and unless extreme care is taken, it can look very much the work of an amateur.

Next in simplicity to sandwich lamination is the post blocked form. As the word implies, the centre form is a square post of wood, with contrasting woods and veneers glued around it. This type of laminated work is very suitable for the production of table lamps and gives a most attractive appearance, although again, as a money making proposition, where time is limited, the amateur would do well not to make the build up too complicated.

The preparation of the centre core is the first step. This should be a length of wood, absolutely square and planed on all four sides. Diagonal lines are marked on the ends of the wood to determine the true centres. This core should then be placed on the lathe between centres, and the tailstock adjusted to lightly hold the piece of wood. With the lathe turning at medium speed, make a light cut with the parting tool, at each end of the wood. Stop the lathe and check the cut made with the parting tool to see that all four corners have been cut the same amount; if not, reposition the work between centres so that an even cut is taken on all four corners.

Another method in obtaining the perfect centre, is to remove the wood from the lathe after the first cut, plane off the off-centre sides so that the parting tool cuts are equal on all four corners. If the work is not properly centred at this stage, the finished piece will have an out of balance design.

The next step is to choose some suitable contrasting wood and cut into strips about 1/2 in. thick, planed flat on both sides. Two of these strips are then glued to two opposite sides of the basic block making them slightly wider than the block of wood. When the glue is set, lightly plane the edges of these strips so that they are flush with the sides of the block.

A second pair of strips is then applied to the other sides of the block, the sides slightly overhanging. When set, lightly plane flush with the remainder of the block, retaining the true squareness of the original block. The build up proceeds in this manner until the required size of block is built up, always fixing one pair of sides at a time. No attempt should be made to speed up the work as this will only result in bad joints and a lop-sided looking table lamp —if lamps are to be the project. According to the design you have in mind, you may not find it necessary to build up the block the same size for the whole of its length. Only build up the portions which you require to turn, to the required size. There is no need to waste time in building up portions which will be cut away in the subsequent turning operation.

As in all forms of built-up work, the woods used should be of uniform hardness to avoid flats when sanding. Do not spoil the design by using too many pieces of wood.

With all laminated work, it is usual to use some very light woods mixed in with others which are extremely dark and this can present a problem in the finishing stages. If you are not careful in the sanding process, it is quite easy to embed particles of the darker wood into the lighter portions. Use very fine sand paper with not too much pressure. The surface of the wood should then be sealed with clear french polish. Allow this to dry and smooth down with a further rub with flour paper. This is the finest grade of sand paper. Finally polish with another coat of clear french polish and carnauba wax.

Having now covered most of the basic types of woodturning and also some of the more unusual aspects of it, you are probably wondering where to go next. No doubt you have spent quite a lot of time and money with your equipment and want to get into production and make the machinery pay for itself.

The first saleable articles are always a thrill and achieve­ment. In an earlier chapter, I told you how to make a table lamp base. This was to get you to use your tools properly, so now let us get into this woodturning business properly.

Table lamps are always popular and can be turned and polished without being removed from the lathe. If you are not too sure of designing one yourself, take a look round at some pottery articles. A lot of them are quite suitable for copying in wood. The first requirements will be blocks of wood from 6 in. to 8 in. long and about 5 in. square. In some parts of the country it is possible to purchase specially prepared blocks of wood used in the manufacture of skittles. These save a lot of time, if you can get hold of them, as they are usually trued up and have the corners taken off so that the block is an octagonal form.

Plate 14 shows some designs for table lamps. Mount the block of hardwood between centres on your lathe, using for preference, a four-prong driving centre. The centres on the wood should previously have been marked out in the usual way. Check, by rotating your lathe by hand, that the work is running true, then bring up the tailstock so that it is at a suitable height—•just above the centre line of the work. Tighten and lock the tailstock. Using the 3/8 in. gouge, turn to the desired shape, at a speed of 1,400 r.p.m., remembering always, to cut from the larger diameter to the smaller. Take up the parting tool and true off the base of the lamp, if anything, making it slightly concave. This will ensure that the base will rest flat on the table. When trueing the base with the parting tool, it will only be possible to cut the wood away up as far as the driving centre, thus leaving a short pin or tenon. Do not worry about this, as it will be taken out in the boring operation.

The end of the lamp at the tailstock end should be trued up either with the point of a skew chisel or using the f in. gouge to obtain a nice smooth finish. Stop the lathe now at this stage, and inspect the work for any flaws in the wood and, if necessary, fill these with plastic wood if they are very deep, and allow to dry. I am not really in favour of using plastic wood at all, as it is difficult to camouflage in the finishing process, but sometimes it cannot be helped.

Now comes the finishing process, so remove your tool rest or slide it along the bed out of the way. With the lathe turning at a faster speed of about 2,000 r.p.m., sand the surface of the lamp, using a medium grade paper followed by a fine one. Now take a block of pure beeswax and whilst the lathe is rotating, press this into the work, thus depositing a thin layer of beeswax over the entire project. This is rubbed in using a well worn piece of medium grade sand paper. The wax will be forced into the grain of the wood, together with some of the sandings, thus making a perfectly coloured sealer, no matter what wood you are using, except for the paler woods such as sycamore, beech or maple, which will require a different technique. For these woods do not apply beeswax as a filler as it will give a yellowish finish. Being very close grained, a sealer only will be required. For the sealing, apply a coat of clear french polish with a pad, replenishing it as soon as it becomes dry. The speed of the revolving work will dry the polish, more or less, as soon as it is applied. Work progressively from one end of the work to the other and gradually a reasonable shine will be produced. If preferred, the french polish can be built up to provide the finished surface. A little linseed oil applied to the pad with the tip of the finger will prevent the pad from sticking. The only disadvantage of the french polish finish on its own, is that it is not scratchproof and if you are supplying table lamps to the trade, this is quite a serious fault. I have found that carnauba wax finish is to be preferred. Assuming then, that our final finish is to be carnauba wax and that the sealer coat has been worked up to a fair shine, apply a stick of carnauba wax lightly to the whole of the work, the lathe still revolving at 2,000 r.p.m. Only a light film of this wax is required. If you apply too much the finish will be brittle. The wax is spread over the whole of the work with a piece of lintless rag, using only a light pressure. Here now, is the tricky piece; too much pressure will remove the carnauba wax completely; too little, and it will look as if it has been out in the frost. A little practice will soon give you the correct pressure. If the polishing rag is applied with the index finger, the frictional heat will be felt and that will be the indication whether or not too much pressure is being applied.

Stop the lathe and remove the work. It will be quite fit to handle as the carnauba wax sets very quickly and is non-sticky to the touch. Remove the driving centre from the lathe and replace with a three-jaw drill chuck. Using a 11/4 in. centre bit mounted in the chuck, and with the lathe rotating at 1,000 r.p.m., drill out the bottom of the table lamp to a depth of 1 in., to remove the unturned piece in the centre of the base, and also, to enable the 1/4 in. flex hole which will be bored horizontally in the base, to meet the vertical hole to the lampholder. The boring method is quite simple. Holding the wood firmly in the left hand, lightly press on to the tail-stock centre, at the same time advance it on to the drill point with the tailstock feed. Remove the 11/4in. centre bit and replace with a wood drill of 5/16 in. diameter. Bore out the centre hole first from the top of the lamp base, using the tailstock held into the base of the lamp, then reverse the wood and drill the other end. Both holes should meet up perfectly if you do not force the drill to cut. This method is quite suitable for drilling this length of wood, although if preferred, the long-hole boring attachment can be used. The last stage in drilling, is to bore the 1/4 in. hole in the side of the base to take the flex into the lamp. All that remains now, is to fit a brass nipple to take the lamp holder. These are made with a 1/2in. metal screwed thread at one end and the other end with a 3/8 in. woodscrew thread which will screw nicely into the 5/16 in. hole drilled through the lamp.

Although this description may make lamp base making appear a lengthy process, in actual fact you should be able to make one finished lamp in well under 20 minutes. If you propose making several lamps of similar shape, you will find it beneficial to manufacture them in stages; that is, turn them all first, sand and seal all, then finish them and finally drill.

To get the most out of your lathe, aim at doing as much work as possible with the particular tool you are using. It is a waste of time to keep changing from tools to polishing to boring and then back again for the next item.

Another type of table lamp is the table standard type (plate 14). This consists of a separate pillar and base. For the pillar, you will require a 10 in. piece of wood, 2 in. to 21/2 in. square, and a 6 in. disc of wood, about 1 in. thick for the base. Turn the pillar between centres at a speed of 2,000 r.p.m., as in the case of the stool leg, but turning a 1 in. diameter pin or tenon at the driving centre end of the work. A pair of callipers will come in useful here. Set them to exactly 1 in. diameter. This type of lamp is suitable for a contemporary design and turning is reduced to a minimum, a straight taper being all that is required, commencing with the widest part of the pillar which should be at the tail-stock end. The wood should be first roughed to shape with a 3/4 in. gouge and finished off with the skew chisel to a maxi­mum diameter of 2 in. at the top, tapered to about 11/4in. at the base. The 1 in. diameter pin at the base of the pillar should be about 3/4 in. long. In any projects consisting of several parts, it is as well to finish each part separately on the lathe, as it may prove to be difficult once the various parts are assembled.

Having turned and finished the pillar, except for boring, take it out of the lathe and remove the pronged driving centre. Screw a 21/2 in. diameter woodscrew chuck on to the mandrel. Bore a small hole with a bradawl in the centre of the 6 in. diameter base block and mount on to the wood-screw chuck. Using the 3/8in. gouge on its side and with the tool rest as close to the work as possible, true the block to a perfect circle. Try not to damage the fibres of the wood in this operation. If you are using the gouge correctly, this should not present any problems. Scraper tools could be used but if you are not careful, they will give you a rough finish which will be difficult to remove with sand paper. With regard to the general shape of the base, this will depend on whether your project is to be traditional or contemporary. For the latter, a plain disc is all that is needed, whereas for the traditional, just a little shape will give the desired effect. Do not make it too ornate. With the point of a skew chisel, make a small mark in the centre of the work, to give a centre for boring a 1 in. diameter hole in the base. Sand, seal and polish the base, using the same method as in the other table lamp. Remove the woodscrew chuck and base and mount the three-jaw chuck in the mandrel. Drill a 1 in. diameter hole in the base using the tailstock with a drill pad, consisting of a block of wood with a hole in it, to fit over the nose of the tailstock spindle. The base is held on to the drill pad and advanced on to the rotat­ing drill by means of the tailstock feed. Finally drill a 5/16 in. diameter hole through the pillar and a 1/4 in. flex hole through the side of the base, and glue the pillar into the base.

Another simple but effective small table lamp is in the form of a candlestick. This is made entirely using the woodscrew chuck and uses up a number of odd waste pieces of wood. A 6 in. × 1 in. disc is turned to shape as previously described, the inside being shaped like a deep saucer; a 1 in. diameter hole being bored through the centre to take the small centre stem. For the stem and handle, mount a piece of wood 2 in. square and 4 in. long, centrally on the woodscrew chuck, the ends of the block having been previously cut square. Bring up the tailstock with a plain centre inserted to support the wood during the roughing out stage. With the lathe turning at 2,000 r.p.m. turn the block to a true cylinder, being careful not to touch the rotating chuck. A 1 in. portion can be left unturned at this end as it will be waste. Having smoothed the block remove the tailstock and remount it in the three-jaw chuck with a 11/4 in. centre bit. Bore a short hole in the end of the wood to a depth of about J in. Using a 3/8 in. gouge and small skew chisel, shape the portion to form a ring, and part off, using the parting tool, after sanding and polishing this small section. This ring is to be the handle of the candlestick. The remainder is shaped to form a short pillar with a 1 in. diameter pin at the chuck end. The shape need not be anything spectacular but try and make it a little ornamental. Sand and polish as before. With the wood still rotating, bore a 5/16 in. hole down the centre using the tailstock mounted drill chuck and being very careful not to foul the point of the woodscrew in the chuck. Finally, with the drill mounted in the mandrel bore a 1/4 in. diameter flex hole in the base.

Assembly is very simple, the short pillar being stuck into the base and the wooden ring being either stuck to the base or screwed from underneath.

All of these lamp projects can be completed in a very short time and although I have covered only three basic designs, they can all be varied to the craftsman's choice.

Many wooden articles only call for turning as part of the finished product and it is in this aspect that the lathe is very useful. After using a lathe for some time, you will soon appreciate the use of a bandsaw or jig saw, to widen the variety of your work. The following projects have most of the parts turned and the remainder cut out with bandsaw or fretsaw. Wall lamp brackets and chandeliers fall into this category, although the whole project could be turned throughout with slight alteration in design. Most turned articles usually create a large amount of waste wood, both in the initial cutting and also the subsequent turning. The latter, of course, cannot be avoided, but it is well to spend a certain amount of time in setting out the designs on the wood, so that there will be a minimum of wastage. The wall bracket parts can all be cut from one 6 in. × 1 in. board, preferably planed beforehand, as shown in figure 24. Marked out as shown, you can cut a number of arms and three sizes of discs, i.e. 5 in. diameter, 31/2 in. diameter and 21/2 in. diameter, all of which can be used either for brackets or chandeliers. I do not propose to go into any detail of methods of turning or boring, as this should be understood if you have followed my earlier chapters. The general procedure is the purpose of the following.

Figure 24. Method of marking out wood for wall brackets etc.

The first stage, after cutting out is to turn the 5 in. and the 31/2 in. diameter pieces to the shape shown, using a woodscrew chuck and a 3/8 in. gouge. The large disc will form the back plate to the bracket and the 31/2 in. diameter piece is sawn into two equal parts. The smaller discs are turned to form cups for the lampholders and a support for imitation candle drips. To turn the cups, first of all shape the undersides and sand, making a hole in the centre with a bradawl whilst the work is rotating. Stop the lathe, and reverse the position of the cup and hollow out the centre, being careful not to touch the woodscrew holding the work. For small items such as these, you will need only about 3/8in. of the woodscrew, so, unless your woodscrew chuck has an adjustable centre screw, use a piece of hardboard as a packing piece. Drill a 5/16 in. hole in the centre of each cup to take a brass pillar nipple, which will extend through the cup by about 1/4 in. All parts should be well sanded whilst on the lathe, but it is not necessary to polish at this stage.

The arms are next drilled, first with a short vertical 5/16 in. diameter hole, about an inch from the end of the deepest portions and a long 5/16 in. diameter hole running through the centre of the arm to meet up with the vertical hole. This may seem a little difficult but if a parrot nosed bit is used for this operation, and the arm is fed on to the drill using the tailstock, you will have no trouble. Alternatively, make a small table which can be supported in the tool rest holder and used as a drilling jig. Finally, drill a 3/8 in. diameter hole in the centre of the back plate.

The method of assembly is very simple and is the same for either single or double arm brackets. The arm is just screwed and glued centrally on one of the half circles of wood. In the case of a two-arm bracket, these are screwed at 90 degrees to each other on the half circle. Then screw this assembly to the back plate so that the arms are central on it. The other turned half of wood is mounted on top of the arms, being screwed in position from behind the back plate. Thread in the flex and screw on the lampholder cups to the end of the arms, using the extended portion of the pillar nipple as the holding device. All that remains is to screw a small brass mirror plate to the back of the wall lamp for fixing purposes.

The chandeliers or pendants are constructed in a very similar way using identical parts to the wall brackets, with the exception of the centre pillar. The first operation is to turn a centre pillar from a piece of 21/2 in. square wood, about 10 in. long. Turn between centres to either a tradi­tional or contemporary design in the same manner as in the table standard; as a matter of fact, this lamp part can be used for the pillar! A 1 in. diameter pin is turned at one end. Bore a 3/8 in. diameter hole through the pillar either free-hand or using the long boring attachment. Enlarge the hole at the top of the pillar to take a 1/2 in. male hook, as pendant hooks are called. Two 5 in. diameter pieces are then turned on the woodscrew chuck to the same shape as the back plates of the wall brackets and a 1 in. diameter hole bored in the centre of each.

Next turn a 3 in. plain wooden disc, 1 in. thick or to the thickness of the arms, again bore a 1 in. diameter hole in the centre of this piece. In the sides of this disc, bore three holes, 3/8 in. diameter, spaced at an angle of 120 degrees to each other for a three-arm pendant, or at 90 degrees to each other for a four-arm pendant. The arms, which should be about 8 in. long overall, are drilled in the same manner as before. The lampholder cups are turned and bored, to the same pattern as in the wall brackets.

The method of assembly is quite straightforward. First, the 3 in. plain disc of wood is screwed centrally to the back of one of the 5 in. pieces, and the arms screwed to this in such a way that the long holes in the arms mate up with the side holes in the 3 in. centre disc. On top of this assembly is screwed the other 5 in. piece, these screw holes being as close as possible to the 1 in. diameter hole already bored. The pillar is then glued into this assembly. Thread in the flex to each arm and through the centre pillar and connect them all in parallel with small connectors in the centre of the assembly. Finally screw on the lampholder cups at the ends of the arms. To complete the pendant, a small knob is turned with a short 1 in. diameter pin, which will fit into the base of the pendant, thus concealing the wire connexions and fixing screws.

The usual height of a floor lamp standard is about 5 ft., and it is, perhaps, one of the largest single turned items which the amateur will be called upon to turn. As the dis­tance between centres of most lathes is 30 in., the pillar for these has to be turned in two sections, each being 30 in. long. The timber used should not be less than 21/2 in. square and it should have good straight grain and be clear of knots. Avoid using timber with what is called short grain, that is, with the grain running diagonally across the piece of wood, as this would cause the finished product to warp and twist.

Most lamp standards are used in a warm room, often quite close to the fireplace, so the wood must also be well seasoned. The portions for the pillar are turned in the normal manner between centres and each will have a 1 in. diameter pin or tenon turned on one end. In setting out your design aim at having most of the intricate turning on the lower half (see plate 14). This piece should be of fairly solid proportions and tapering. The upper half should be reasonably plain, except for a little design at the very top, to take the lampholder. If the work shows any sign of ridging or vibrating, a steady rest will have to be used to support the work whilst turning. Perhaps by now you have plucked up enough courage to steady the work with the palm of the left hand, whilst turning the work single handed with the other. It is surprising how easy it is when you have the knack! When each portion has been turned, it should be sanded and polished whilst still on the lathe, using either wax, french polish, carnauba method or straightforward french polishing. Bore out the centre holes using the long hole boring method as already described.

The next item is to make up a 14 in. diameter base of three pieces, each 14 in. × 5 in. and about l1/2 in. thick. The pieces are planed square on the edges and then glued together, using a synthetic glue. Mark out a 14 in. diameter circle with a compass and cut roughly to shape with a handsaw or bandsaw. Mount the disc on a woodscrew chuck and flatten off the base, using either a 3/4 in. half round gouge or scraping tools. Turn a slight recess in the centre to take the normal faceplate. Remove the base from the woodscrew chuck and remount on to the faceplate with four woodscrews, using the turned recess to mount the faceplate. Shape the base using the 3/8 in. gouge and scraper tools, with the lathe running at its slowest speed of about 450 r.p.m. With the lathe still rotating, bore a 1 in. diameter hole in the centre to take the vertical pillar. This hole can be bored out using the point of a skew chisel but I prefer to hold a three-jaw chuck in my hand and just push.

The base can then be sanded and polished. All that is required now to finish the base is three small turned feet about 2 in. in diameter and 1 in. thick. These can be turned on the woodscrew chuck, or by placing a short length of wood between centres and turning the three small discs out of one piece of wood. When turned they are partly cut off with the parting tool and finally sawn off. These are then screwed at equal distances around the underside of the base. The whole assembly is then glued together.

When assembling the two parts which form the centre column, try and arrange them so that the grain in each section matches as near as possible.

I have described the method using two separate portions for the centre column, but providing a suitable design is chosen, this could be made up of more separate sections, the joins of each being hidden by carefully positioned beads or fillets, the finished product having a continuous appearance. This is a good way of using up old table and chair legs which can often be bought very cheaply from old junk shops.

Many turned articles rely on a certain amount of ingenuity by the craftsman. For example, a powder bowl with a turned lid can be partly turned all in one piece. A block of wood, slightly deeper in section than the com­pleted powder bowl, is mounted on the woodscrew chuck and turned to shape, including the portion for the lid. A groove, 1/2 in. wide and about 1/4 in. deep is cut with the parting tool at the point where the lid joins the remainder of the bowl. The lid is now sanded and polished and a small hole made in the centre with a bradawl. Then cut it away from the remainder with the parting tool, leaving a small lip which will locate the lid in the bowl. The bowl is then hollowed out in the conventional way, being careful to leave sufficient wood at the sides so that the lid will be a snug fit. The bowl is then polished inside and out.

Remove from the wood screw chuck and mount the lid on it, the underside of which is turned slightly concave, and polished. Turn a small knob out of an odd contrasting piece of wood, with a small 3/8 in. pin on the end of it. A short 3/8 in. hole is drilled in the top of the lid and the knob glued in it.

Another item with which you can have difficulty is a wooden goblet. These usually have very narrow stems near the base and a large upper portion, which is hollowed out. In cases like this, turn the block, which should be mounted on a woodscrew chuck, to a cylinder, using the tailstock as additional support, if required. Hollow out the inside, using the parting tool and scrapers, to the desired internal dimensions. This must be turned first because if you try to do it after shaping the outside there will not be sufficient strength in the wood, particularly in the narrow section. Having hollowed and sanded the inside, the tail-stock should be brought up to support the work, with a block of wood between the plain centre and the inside of the goblet. This will give ample support whilst the outside is being turned to shape. It is a good idea to have several small round blocks of wood for this purpose. Reproduction goblets are a favourite object for local antique dealers to ask for.

Cake stands make suitable gifts for your friends, particu­larly if they are turned in walnut or mahogany—just the thing to please your mother-in-law at Christmas! The principle of manufacture is quite straightforward. The base is first turned in the normal manner on the woodscrew chuck, using a 2 in. thick block about 4 in. in diameter. If you are not too certain of a suitable design, take a look around your local china shop and you will soon get the idea. Having turned the base, sand and polish it, and drill a 1 in. diameter hole about 1/2 in. deep in the centre of the wood, the drill being held in the tailstock whilst the work is rotating. This will be the position which is to be joined to the upper plate. Remove this piece from the chuck and remount another disc of wood about 9 in. in diameter and 11/2 in. thick. Turn the underside first, with a flat section in the centre which will mate up with the base piece. Whilst still rotating, bore a very shallow 1 in. diameter hole, about 1/4 in. deep. Remove the bit and make a small hole with the bradawl in the centre of this 1 in. hole. Reverse the piece of wood on the woodscrew chuck and shape the top side, removing sufficient wood so that there is no trace of the previous woodscrew fixing. The two portions are then glued together using a short length of 1 in. dowel to centralize the two pieces.

To use up odd pieces of timber, there are always plenty of small articles which can be made, suitable for sale in gift shops. These include ash trays, small barrels to hold matches, barometer cases and cruet sets. You have all seen at the holiday resorts the assortment of little wooden articles fitted with small thermometers and egg timers. Although not works of art, they do use up the odd pieces of wood which would otherwise be put on the fire.

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